The Progressive And Gilded Age - 914 Words

The Progressive and Gilded Age in America The Progressives were a group of reformers such as writers, politicians, and Social welfare advocate, etc. living mainly in cities during the early 20th century and working to change legislative issues, financial aspects, and good society. They accepted that change could originate from inside of man, and along these lines, dismisses the believe of Social Darwinism and regular determination. They were in charge of the section of many laws, including restriction, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, and the Interstate Commerce Act. During this era, â€Å"People work to make themselves and the society a safer and a better place to live. The Progressive worked to make big business regulate more responsible and clean up corrupted businesses, city, improving a better working conditions etc.†(Discussion 9). New comers to the movement strived to adjust to new conditions at one hand while attempting to keep up their particular society and dialect frame work with the other making a perplexing circumstance. The Progressives â€Å"offered an impressive array of reform proposals† because the American society greatly needed reconstruction. The wealth dominated the poor by taking money and leaving the rest of the society in the circle of poverty. Low wage-rates, â€Å"wages that barely kept their families alive† (Zinn 13). Perilous working conditions, with long working hours were among a few extensive issues that needed to be changed. â€Å"According to a report of theShow MoreRelatedThe Gilded Age And The Progressive Era3319 Words   |  14 PagesThe Gilded Age and the Progressive Era were times of great change for women in the United States, and women entered into a new standard of living. As times progressed and new advances were made in both society and technology, people had to learn how to adapt to those changes while still being an asset and following societal rules. The purpose of this paper is to acknowledge th e reformations and changes brought to people and society by women during the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era. RegardlessRead MoreThe Progressive Era Of The Gilded Age1455 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout the progressive era there were many reform movements due to the abundance of political, social, and economical corruption in America in the gilded age as seen by political machines like William Marcy tweed and American financiers like J.P. Morgan. Some of the many issues that made themselves present in the gilded age include the large wealth gap, child labor, women’s lack of rights, influx of immigrants, Urbanization, Indian wars, monopolists, political machines, and alcoholism. All ofRead MoreThe Progressive Era Of The Gilded Age1465 Words   |  6 PagesWith change comes consequences. Industrialization of the United States had indirectly tarnished the Gilded Age, and now that this era was coming to an end, reformers were left to clean up the mess. Hence, the Progressive era was born. The Progressive movement was based in the urban middle class and focused on the improvement of society, the economy, and politics. Yet, the movement was not unified. Each reform group of the era had a separate goal that they would focus on. Each president also hadRead MoreThe Gilded Age : The Challenges Of The Progressive Era1344 Words   |  6 PagesThe Gilded Age was associated with many difficulties - unprecedented fortunes and poverty, urban squalor, unhygienic food production, and other issues – that many Americans were left to deal with. In the early 1900s, â€Å"widespread dissatisfaction with new trends in American society spurred the Progressive Era, named for the various ‘progressive’ movements that attracted various constituencies around various reforms† (Andrew et al. 1). This new era was the age in which people tried to solve problemsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Gilded Age And Progressive Era1108 Words   |  5 PagesAnalysis of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era Throughout the history of time, people named certain time periods based on the events that occurred. People considered the time from the 1890s to 1916 as a shift of the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era when many things changed dramatically. The â€Å"Gilded Age† was the time of innovation, invention, and rapid growth, but the presence of monopolies sprouted everywhere in American’s economy and led to social inequalities. Then the Progressive Era respondedRead MoreThe Gilded Age : An Era Of Extreme Corruption1169 Words   |  5 PagesAmerica enters the Gilded Age from 1877 till about the 1890’s. Then the next era would be the Progressive Era beginning from where the Gilded Age left off till around 1920. Though these eras are accepted in the historical community, some historians argue that it is useless to label these two as separate eras in American history. One historian is Rebecca Edwards in her article Politics, Social Movement, and the Periodization of U.S. History. She argues that the Gilded Age and the Progressive should be knownRead MoreThe Gilded Age : A Powerhouse Rose From The Ashes Of The Civil War871 Words   |  4 PagesProgressives in the Gilded Age The Gilded Age: A powerhouse rose from the ashes of the Civil War. From the Civil War until about 1896, the Gilded Age was born. The United States was going through an era of governmental, fiscal and societal restructuring. Gilded Age got its name because Mark Twain seen as a period where everything seemed to be well on the surface but beneath was a scheme of political dishonesty and self-indulgence. Around this time, the affluent upper class was created due to theRead MoreThe Gilded Age Of The Nineteenth Century And The Succeeding Period887 Words   |  4 PagesTwo prominent eras of American History were the Gilded Age at the end of the nineteenth century and the succeeding period, the Progressive Era. The Gilded Age, also know as the Second Industrial Revolution, was a peak of high economic development with the rise of technological advancements in a free market environment, meaning that the economy was driven by self-interest instead of government authority. Besides its economic growth, the Gilded Age handle changes in social divisions. After the abolishmentRead MoreWomen During The Civil War997 Words   |  4 Pagesof American society throughout American history. As an example, women fought to change the course and ideologies that were bestowed upon them by the traditional viewpoints of society of the time. The status of women was shifting rapidly in the Progressive Era. However, middle-class white married women still did not work outside the home. They were expected to stay home and tend to their families. Minority women, on the other hand, had to balance home life and their jobs outside of the home. AnRead MoreThe United States Treatment Of African Americans1291 Words   |  6 Pagesthis was much better than slavery, citizenship came with many troubles of its own. The years following the Civil War, known as the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era, would prove to be, aside from slavery, some of the hardest times for African Americans in all of U.S. history. The years immediately following the Civil War were known as the Gilded Age. During the Gilded Age, African Americans were had just been freed from slavery, given the right to vote, and had many more protections under the federal

Analysis Of Still I Rise By Maya Angelou - 993 Words

My Black is Brave, My Black is Strong Strength. Strength can be seen in the readings that we have encountered this semester. Blacks have been through a lot ever since coming to this country called â€Å"America.† From being beaten, oppressed, and even worst, killed. Whites have always felt that Blacks had to be controlled because they were â€Å"property† but obtaining the obedience from Blacks was not a simple task. So in order to get the control of the people in the Black community, Whites thought that fear was the only way. Fear was something that could be put into a race so that they could be controlled by another. And with this fear a community could be controlled but Whites never through about the strength and braveness that was instilled inside of the Black culture. We can see this strength in the poems that we have discussed in class starting with Maya Angelou’s â€Å"Still I Rise.† Angelou starts off her poem stating, â€Å"You may write me down in history with your bitter, twisted lies, you may trod me in the very dirt but still, like dust, I’ll rise.(Lines 1-4)† From these lines, Angelou speaks on the strength that African-American have each day. Blacks have been seen in history as an abomination, and their names have been dragged through the mud just because of their skin color. But Angelou tells people that none of this will matter because in the end, Blacks will get back up again. Angelou even speaks of the fear that Whites try to put in the hearts of Blacks with the Lines 35-36Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Still I Rise By Maya Angelou1080 Words   |  5 Pagestougher and wiser. Still I rise is a poem written by Maya Angelou, an African American poet and a civil-rights activist. This poem was written around the civil rights movement, when people where being segregated by their race. Throughout this poem we are shown the thoughts and feelings people have displayed against her, but she will not let them get h er down. Her dark past allows her to have strength and rise above the criticism where her ancestors fell to slavery. In poem Still I rise the main messageRead MoreAnalysis Of Still I Rise By Maya Angelou917 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Still I Rise† is an inspiring poem written by Maya Angelou, she delivers a powerful message from within to provide her African American ancestors an opportunity to rise above segregation and racism. Maya Angelou expresses her pride throughout the poem and describes different hardships in her past. Angelou incorporates her past experiences, powerful views, and over comings while also expressing the tone regarding her pride, feminist values, strong confidence, and close ties with African AmericanRead MoreAnalysis Of The Poem Still I Rise By Maya Angelou1959 Words   |  8 PagesMaya Angelou was a highly respected spokesperson for African Americans as well as for women of the twentieth century. She spoke on the behalf of all enslaved African A mericans who suffered during the civil war. Most of her works are considered autobiographical because they contain many of her own experiences. She is a natural narrative writer that uses a lot of imagery and repetition in her poems.She has a great influence in the field of literature as a woman’s activist. She has received numerousRead MoreStill I Rise by Maya Angelou Literary Analysis Essay756 Words   |  4 PagesIn the poem ‘Still I Rise’ by Maya Angelou, the poet uses repetition, metaphors and similes to express to her audience about how she has overcome racism in her life through demonstrating a strong, proud and defiant attitude to inspire others. The poet uses repetition of the word ‘rise’ to show that she has overcome and risen above racism. In the line, ‘you may trod me in the very dirt but still, like dust ill rise’ it expresses to the reader one of the key ideas in her poem, that no matter howRead MoreUxt Task 1945 Words   |  4 PagesRunning head: Analysis of â€Å"Still I Rise† 1 Analysis of â€Å"Still I Rise† When reading, â€Å"Still I Rise†, by Maya Angelou, I immediately get a sense of perseverance and pride. The author seems to be addressing her adversaries directly through her words. I love the imagery used in this poem. I can almost see the dust rising and can feel the swelling of the black ocean that the author mentions. â€Å"Cause I walk like I got oil wells pumping in my living room†(Angelou, 1978), and, â€Å"Laugh like I’veRead MoreStill I Rise1705 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Still I Rise† Poem Analysis â€Å"Still I Rise† was written by Maya Angelou, who is an African-American poet. A majority of her poems are written on slavery and life as a African- American woman. â€Å"Still I Rise† is one of the many well known. She discusses how she is treated differently and refers to her ancestry and relates to events they went through during the time of slavery and the events she continues to go through during her time period of life. â€Å"This poem has been an inspiration to peopleRead MoreThe Importance of Determination Essay687 Words   |  3 Pagesovercome the obstacles that stand in their way. â€Å"Mother to Son† by Langston Hughes and â€Å"Still I Rise† by Maya Angelou are two different works written by two different authors yet they both convey the same message. Together, the two authors stress the significance of pushing harder when faced with conflicts rather than simply giving up. Using figurative language and repetition, Langston Hughes and Maya Angelou effectively emphasize this message in both of their poems. In both poems, both authorsRead MoreAnalysis of the poem Still I Rise1268 Words   |  6 Pages2014 An Analysis of the poem Still I Rise by Maya Angelou African Americans have been oppressed for centuries. Despite this discrimination, people of this race have fought hard for their freedom and respect. This pursuit of equality is evident inMaya Angelou’s poem, â€Å"Still I Rise†. Angelou integrates numerous literary ideas such as various sounds, poetry forms, and key concepts.The poetic devices incorporated in Maya Angelou’s work, â€Å"Still I Rise†,heightens theRead MoreMaya Angelou: Speak Up Essay example1127 Words   |  5 PagesMaya Angelou experienced a life-changing event at the vulnerable age of eight: her mother’s boyfriend raped her. As a result, she chose to be mute for five years due to the emotional trauma this caused. Soon, a family friend named Mrs. Flowers, a wealthy and intellectual woman from Stamps, Arkansas where her grandmother resided, read with Angelou and helped Maya to express herself through writing. Mrs. Flowers taught Maya â€Å"words mean more than what is set dow n on paper. It takes the human voiceRead MoreMaya Angelou: A Model Woman Through Influential Literature Essay1708 Words   |  7 Pagesinfluence on society itself. Maya Angelou is a great example of the model woman. She has beaten the odds and has become one of the most well known African American women of today. She is an author, poet, historian, songwriter, playwright, dancer, stage and screen producer, director, performer, singer, and civil rights activist. Her most influential work comes from her extraordinary books and poems. Her literature has influenced the young and old with their contents. Maya Angelous literary significance

Accounting for Business

Question: Discuss about the Financial Statement Analysis. Answer: Introduction The main purpose of the assignment is to bring out the financial statement analysis figures of BWX Limited. BWX is vertically integrated body, hair as well as skin care company with Head Office located in South Victoria of Melbourne (Williams 2012). It operates in core activities like new product development as well as manufacturing activities; BWX is the owner, distributor as well as producer of top brands namely Sukin, Uspa as well as Edward Beale and Renew Skincare. Financial Statement Analysis Identifying balance sheet figures of BWX Limited Current Assets of BWX Limited Current assets indicate in the balance sheet statement of BWX Limited. It helps in representation of values of assets at particular time. Some of the current account figures include accounts receivables, cash equivalents, stock and prepaid expenses (Epstein and Lee 2011). BWX Limited 2014 ($ Million) 2015 ($ Million) Current Assets 36857 38822 Table: Current Assets of BWX Limited This particular analysis is presented in form of tables and graphs that represents total current assets of BWX Limited from the year 2014 and 2015. In the year 2014, total current assets arise at 36857 and 38822 in the year 2015. On critical analysis, it is noticed that total current assets increases in between two years on company BWX Limited (Duska, Duska and Ragatz 2011). Increased current assets in the recent financial year depicts that BWX Limited can manage with the expenses and pay out for day-to-day running of business organization in certain way. It ensures meeting short-term obligations of BWX Limited for smooth functioning of business organization. Non-Current Assets of BWX Limited Non-current assets indicate assets in case of unrestricted cash for given period up to one year. It comes under balance sheet figures for specified time. It reports under headings including PPE intangibles for future analysis purpose. BWX Limited 2014 ($ Million) 2015 ($ Million) Non-Current Assets 26780 29969 Table: Non-Current Assets of BMX Limited This particular analysis is presented in form of tables and graphs that represents total non-current assets of BWX Limited from the year 2014 and 2015. In the year 2014, total non-current assets arise at 26780 and 29969 in the year 2015. On critical analysis, it is noticed that total current assets increases in between two years on company BWX Limited. Increase in non-current assets reveals the fact that BWX Limited has the ability in converting long-term assets in the near future (Deegan and Unerman 2011). Current Liabilities of BWX Limited It is important to understand the term current liabilities as it reveals obligations for period less than one year at specified date. Current liabilities indicate in the liabilities section of balance sheet statements. It initiates creation of liabilities for future analysis purpose. BWX Limited operates in cycle for a period longer than 1 year. It indicates ways in form of principal portion shown in the notes payable section for one year time (Davies and Crawford 2012). Current liabilities figures include accounts payable, sundry creditors and accrued expenses at the same time. It involves specified parties that owes current liabilities as well as referred in form of creditors in an overall manner. Most of the creditors shows lien in case of current assets in response with secured creditors. BWX Limited 2014 ($ Million) 2015 ($ Million) Current Liabilities 1024 1229 Table: Current Liabilities of BMX Limited This particular analysis is presented in form of tables and graphs that represents total current liabilities of BWX Limited from the year 2014 and 2015. In the year 2014, total liabilities arise at 1024 and 1229 in the year 2015. On critical analysis, it is noticed that total current liabilities increases in between two years on company BWX Limited. It is necessary in checking current liabilities in the near future (Barrow 2011). It should reduce in the upcoming year for smooth functioning of business organization. Non-current liabilities of BWX Limited It is essential to understand the fact that BWX Ltd uses non-current liabilities for future analysis purpose. Non-current liabilities figures shown in the balance sheet like long-term borrowings, long term lease obligations and bonds payable. BWX Limited 2014 ($ Million) 2015 ($ Million) Non-current liabilities 126 117 Table: Non-Current Liabilities of BMX Limited This particular analysis is presented in form of tables and graphs that represents total non-current liabilities of BWX Limited from the year 2014 and 2015. In the year 2014, total non-current liabilities arise at 126 and 117 in the year 2015. On critical analysis, it is noticed that total non-current liabilities decreases in between two years on company BWX Limited (Balla 2012). It is revealed that BWX Limited investors shows interest in non-current liabilities in the near future. It is essential for viewing at the debt relative as compared with cash flow operations in the most appropriate way. Stockholders equity of BWX Limited It is important to understand the fact that Stockholders equity reveals equity transactions as indicated in the investment capital from the point of view of investors. It revolves around stock exchange and capital stock in proper ways (Albrecht, Stice and Stice 2011). It ensures capital attributes and profit acquisition for future analysis purpose. It indulges in representation of equity stake as held in book accounts by equity investors in desired form. BWX Limited 2014 ($ Million) 2015 ($ Million) Stockholders equity 8222 9864 Table: Stockholders equity of BWX Limited This particular analysis is presented in form of tables and graphs that represents stockholders equity of BWX Limited from the year 2014 and 2015. In the year 2014, stockholders equity arises at 8222 and 9864 in the year 2015. On critical analysis, it is noticed that t stockholders equity increases in between two years on company BWX Limited. Increased stockholders equity helps BWX Limited in acquisition of more shares for better allocation of resources in the most appropriate way. Identifying income statement figures of BWX Limited Total operating revenues of BWX Limited Operating revenues of BWX Limited reveals income from derivation of potential sources for the company in addressing the day-to-day running of business activities. Business organization main objective is to maximize inventory sales and operating revenue in the near future. BWX Limited 2014 ($ Million) 2015 ($ Million) Total operating revenues 670 703 Table: Total operating revenues of BWX Limited This particular analysis is presented in form of tables and graphs that represents total operating revenues of BWX Limited from the year 2014 and 2015. In the year 2014, total operating revenues arise at 670 and 703 in the year 2015. On critical analysis, it is noticed that total operating revenues increases in between two years on company BWX Limited. Increased operating revenues are beneficial for the company and should continue it as far as possible. Net increase implies positive affect in carrying out business actions in the most appropriate way. Cost of goods sold of BWX Limited Cost of Goods Sold derives from direct cost in attribution in production of goods for sale within BWX Limited. Total amount arrives in dedicating cost of materials in creating direct costs and production for goods and services. It ensures excluding expenses like distribution costs and sales force costs at the same time. It initiates income statement accounts and deduction from total revenue in accordance with gross margin figures. BWX Limited 2014 ($ Million) 2015 ($ Million) Cost of goods sold 43320 46252 Table: Cost of goods sold of BWX Limited This particular analysis is presented in form of tables and graphs that represent cost of goods sold of BWX Limited from the year 2014 and 2015. In the year 2014, total current assets arise at 43320 and 46252 in the year 2015. On critical analysis, it is noticed that cost of goods sold increases in between two years on company BWX Limited. Increased cost of goods sold enables smooth operating activities as far as possible. It ensures creation of products as sold in the BWX Limited in form of production purpose. Total Expenses of BWX Limited It is important to understand the concept of total expenses as ij case of measuring total costs from managing and operating investment fund. It includes costs consisting of management fees and additional expenses as indicated in the BWX Limited. It divides into total assets as arrived from percentages in the most appropriate way. BWX Limited 2014 ($ Million) 2015 ($ Million) Total Expenses 4791 5385 Table: Total Expenses of BWX Limited This particular analysis is presented in form of tables and graphs that represents total expenses of BWX Limited from the year 2014 and 2015. In the year 2014, total expenses arise at 4791 and 5385 in the year 2015. On critical analysis, it is noticed that total expenses increases in between two years on company BWX Limited. It is advisable to BWX Limited for reducing the expenses as far as possible. It is income statement figure indicated in the annual reports of BWX Limited. Any non-operating gains and losses of BWX Limited It is important to understand the fact that non-operating income gains reveals organization income in derivation of business operations in relation with non-core operations. Non-operating gains include income, dividend and profits from investment in the most appropriate way. It ensures foreign exchange values, non-operating revenues and writing-off assets. BWX Limited 2014 ($ Million) 2015 ($ Million) Non-operating gains and loses 610 422 Conclusion At the end of the study, it is noticed that BWX Limited should carry out the business in certain ways. The above calculation reveals that BMX Limited should find ways in managing with inventory levels for smooth functioning of business activities. It should acquire more equity shares and reduce in the liabilities as far as possible. It should aim in acquisition of fixed assets in the near future. Reference List Albrecht, W., Stice, E. and Stice, J. (2011).Financial accounting. Mason, OH: Thomson/South-Western. Balla, D. (2012).CLEP financial accounting. Piscataway, NJ.: Research Education Association. Barrow, C. (2011).Practical financial management. London: Kogan Page. Davies, T. and Crawford, I. (2012).Financial accounting. Harlow, England: Pearson. Deegan, C. and Unerman, J. (2011).Financial accounting theory. Maidenhead, Berkshire: McGraw Hill Education. Duska, R., Duska, B. and Ragatz, J. (2011).Accounting ethics. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell. Epstein, M. and Lee, J. (2011).Advances in management accounting. Bingley, UK: Emerald. Fields, E. (2011).The essentials of finance and accounting for nonfinancial managers. New York: American Management Association. Financial management. (2011). London: BPP. Gapenski, L. and Pink, G. (2012).Understanding healthcare financial management. Chicago: Health Administration Press. Glautier, M., Morris, D. and Underdown, B. (2011).Accounting. Harlow, England: Financial Times/Prentice Hall/Pearson. Horngren, C. (2013).Financial accounting. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia Group. Horngren, C., Harrison, W. and Bamber, L. (2012).Accounting. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Kapil, S. (2011).Financial management. Noida, India: Pearson. Kester, R. (2012).Accounting theory and practice. New York: Ronald Press Co. Kieso, D., Weygandt, J. and Warfield, T. (2012).Intermediate accounting. Leung, D. (2011).Inside Accounting. Farnham, Surrey, England: Gower. Libby, R., Libby, P. and Short, D. (2011).Financial accounting. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Needles, B. and Powers, M. (2012).Financial accounting. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Penman, S. (2011).Accounting for value. New York: Columbia University Press. Previts, G., Walton, P. and Wolnizer, P. (2011).A global history of accounting, financial reporting and public policy. Bingley: Emerald. Scott, W. (2011).Financial accounting theory. Toronto, Ont.: Pearson Canada. Scott, W. (2012).Financial accounting theory. Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall. Shim, J., Siegel, J. and Shim, J. (2012).Financial accounting. New York: McGraw-Hill. Spiceland, J., Thomas, W. and Herrmann, D. (2011).Financial accounting. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Weygandt, J., Kimmel, P. and Kieso, D. (2012).Financial and managerial accounting. Hoboken NJ: John Wiley Sons Inc. Whittington, O. and Delaney, P. (2011).Wiley CPA Exam Review 2012, Financial Accounting and Reporting. Hoboken: Wiley. Williams, J. (2012).Financial accounting. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Society in India Essay Example

Society in India Essay After studying this unit you should be able to explain the concept of unity and diversity describe the forms and bases of diversity in India examine the bonds and mechanisms of unity in India provide an explanation to our option for a composite culture model rather than a uniformity model of unity. 1. 1 INTRODUCTION This unit deals with unity and diversity in India. You may have heard a lot about unity and diversity in India. But do you know what exactly it means? Here we will explain to you the meaning and content of this phrase. For this purpose the unit has been divided into three sections. In the first section, we will specify the meaning of the two terms, diversity and unity. 9 Social Structure Rural and Urban In the second section, we will illustrate the forms of diversity in Indian society. For detailed treatment we will focus on the four forms of diversity, race, language, religion and caste. In the third section, we will bring out the bonds of unity in India. These are geopolitical, the culture of pilgrimage, tradition of accommodation, and tradition of interdependence. Above all, we will note that the unity of India is born of a composite culture rather than a uniform culture. . 2 CONCEPTS OF UNITY AND DIVERSITY We begin by clarifying the meaning of the terms diversity and unity. 1. 2. 1 Meaning of Diversity Ordinarily diversity means differences. For our purposes, however, it means something more than mere differences. It means collective differences, that is, differences which mark off one group of people from another. These differences may be of any sort: biol ogical, religious, linguistic etc. On the basis of biological differences, for example, we have racial diversity. On the basis of religious differences, similarly, we have religious diversity. We will write a custom essay sample on Society in India specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Society in India specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Society in India specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The point to note is that diversity refers to collective differences. The term diversity is opposite of uniformity. Uniformity means similarity of some sort that characterises a people. ‘Uni’ refers to one; ‘form’ refers to the common ways. So when there is something common to all the people, we say they show uniformity. When students of a school, members of the police or the army wear the same type of dress, we say they are in ‘uniform’. Like diversity, thus, uniformity is also a collective concept. When a group of people share a similar characteristic, be it language or religion or anything else, it shows uniformity in that respect. But when we have groups of people hailing from different races, religions and cultures, they represent diversity. D. N. Majumdar wrote a book with the title, Races and Cultures of India. Mark the words in the plural: Races (not Race); Cultures (not Culture). Thus, diversity means variety. For all practical purposes it means variety of groups and cultures. We have such a variety in abundance in India. We have here a variety of races, of religions, of languages, of castes and of cultures. For the same reason India is known for its socio-cultural diversity. 1. 2. 2 Meaning of Unity Unity means integration. It is a social psychological condition. It connotes a sense of one-ness, a sense of we-ness. It stands for the bonds, which hold the members of a society together. There is a difference between unity and uniformity. Uniformity presupposes similarity, unity does not. Thus, unity may or may not be based on uniformity. Unity may be born out of uniformity. Durkheim calls this type of unity a mechanical solidarity. We find this type of unity in tribal societies and in 10 traditional societies. However, unity may as well be based on differences. It is such unity, which is described by Durkheim as organic solidarity. This type of unity characterises modern societies. Let us see it in a diagram Unity and Diversity Fig. 1. 1: Two types of unity The point to note is that unity does not have to be based on uniformity. Unity, as we noted earlier, implies integration. Integration does not mean absence of differences. Indeed, it stands for the ties that bind the diverse groups with one another. Check Your Progress 1 i) Mark which of the following is the correct meaning of diversity? a) b) c) ii) Differences between two individuals Similarities among the members of a group Dissimilarities among groups Mark which of the following is the correct example of social diversity? ) b) c) Temperamental differences between men and women Property differences between the two neighbours Differences of religious belongingness between two groups. iii) Indicate which of the following statements are true and which are false. Use T for True and F for False. a) b) c) d) e) f) Unity means absence of differences. Unity is opposite of diversity. Uniformity is a necessary cond ition for unity. Unity in diversity is a contradiction in terms. Mechanical solidarity is based on uniformity. Unity signifies integration. 11 Social Structure Rural and Urban 1. 3 FORMS OF DIVERSITY IN INDIA As hinted earlier, we find in India diversity of various sorts. Some of its important forms are the following: racial, linguistic, religious and caste-based. Let us deal with each one of them in some detail. 1. 3. 1 Racial Diversity You may have seen people of different races in India. A race is a group of people with a set of distinctive physical features such as skin colour, type of nose, form of hair, etc. Herbert Risley had classified the people of India into seven racial types. These are (i) Turko-Iranian, (ii) Indo-Aryan, (iii) Scytho-Dravidian, (iv) AryoDravidian, (v) Mongolo-Dravidian, (vi) Mongoloid, and (vii) Dravidian. These seven racial types can be reduced to three basic types-the Indo-Aryan, the Mongolian and the Dravidian. In his opinion the last two types would account for the racial composition of tribal India. He was the supervisor of the census operations held in India in 1891 and it was data from this census, which founded the basis of this classification. As, it was based mainly on language-types rather than physical characteristics; Risley’s classification was criticised for its shortcomings. Other administrative officers and anthropologists, like J. H. Hutton, D. N. Majumdar and B. S. Guha, have given the latest racial classification of the Indian people based on further researches in this field. Hutton’s and Guha’s classifications are based on 1931 census operations. B. S. Guha (1952) has identified six racial types (1) the Negrito, (2) the Proto Australoid, (3) the Mongoloid, (4) the Mediterranean, (5) the Western Brachycephals, and (6) the Nordic. Besides telling you what the various types denote, we shall not go into the details of this issue, because that will involve us in technical matters pertaining to physical anthropology. Here, we need only to be aware of the diversity of racial types in India. Negritos are the people who belong to the black racial stock as found in Africa. They have black skin colour, frizzle hair, thick lips, etc. In India some of the tribes in South India, such as the Kadar, the Irula and the Paniyan have distinct Negrito strain. The Proto-Australoid races consist of an ethnic group, which includes the Australian aborigines and other peoples of southern Asia and Pacific Islands. Representatives of this group are the Ainu of Japan, the Vedda of Sri Lanka, and the Sakai of Malaysia. In India the tribes of Middle India belong to this strain. Some of these tribes are the Ho of Singhbhumi, Bihar, and the Bhil of the Vindhya ranges. The Mongoloids are a major racial stock native to Asia, including the peoples of northern and eastern Asia. For example, Chinese, Japanese, Burmese, Eskimos, and often American Indians also belong to this race. In India, the North Eastern regions have tribes of brachycephalic Mongoloid strain. A slightly different kind of Mongoloid racial stock is found in the Brahmputra Valley. The Mikir-Bodo group of tribes and the Angami Nagas represent the best examples of Mongoloid racial composition in India. 2 The Mediterranean races relate to the caucasian physical type, i. e. , the white race. It is characterised by medium or short stature, slender build, long head with cephalic index (the ratio multiplied by 100 of the maximum breadth of the head to its maximum length) of less than 75 and dark (continental) complexion. The Western Brachycephals are divided into the following three sub-groups: (1) The A lpenoid are characterised by broad head, medium stature and light skin, found amongst Bania castes of Gujarat, the Kayasthas of Bengal, etc. ii) The Dinaric- They are characterised by broad head, long nose, tall stature and dark skin colour, found amongst the Brahmin of Bengal, the non-Brahmin of Karnataka, (iii) The Armenoid- They are characterised by features similar to Dinaric. The Armenoid have a more marked shape of the back of head, a prominent and narrow nose. The Parsi of Bombay show the typical characteristics of the Armenoid race (Das 1988: 223). Finally, the Nordic races belong to the physical type characterised by tall stature, long head, light skin and hair, and blue eyes. They are found in Scandinavian countries, Europe. In India, they are found in different parts of north of the country, especially in Punjab and Rajputana. The Kho of Chitral, the Red Kaffirs, the Khatash are some of the representatives of this type. Research suggests that the Nordics came from the north, probably from south east Russia and south west Siberia, through central Asia to India. (Das 1988: 223). Unity and Diversity 1. 3. 2 Linguistic Diversity Do you know how many languages are there in India? While the famous linguist Grierson noted 179 languages and 544 dialects, the 1971 census on the other hand, reported 1652 languages in India which are spoken as mother tongue. Not all these languages are, however, equally widespread. Many of them are tribal speeches and these are spoken by less than one percent of the total population. Here you can see that in India there is a good deal of linguistic diversity. Only 18 languages are listed in Schedule VIII of the Indian Constitution. These are Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Out of these 18 languages, Hindi is spoken by 39. 5 percent of the total population; Bengali, Telugu and Marathi by around 8 percent each; Tamil and Urdu by 6. 26 and 5. 22 percent, respectively; and the rest by less than 5 percent each as per 1991 census report (India 2003). The above constitutionally recognised languages belong to two linguistic families: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian. Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu are the four major Dravidian languages. The languages of Indo-Aryan family are spoken by 75 percent of India’s total population while the languages of Dravidian family are spoken by 20 percent. This linguistic diversity notwithstanding, we have always had a sort of link language, though it has varied from age to age. In ancient times it was Sanskrit, in medieval age it was Arabic or Persian and in modern times we have Hindi and English as official languages. 13 Social Structure Rural and Urban 1. 3. 3 Religious Diversity India is a land of multiple religions. We find here followers of various faiths, particularly of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, among others. You know it that Hinduism is the dominant religion of India. According to the census of 1981 it is professed by 82. 64 percent of the total population. Next comes Islam, which is practised by 11. 35 percent. This is followed by Christianity having a following of 2. 43 percent, Sikhism reported by 1. 96 percent, Buddhism by 0. 71 percent and Jainism by 0. 48 percent. The religions with lesser following are Judaism, Zoroastrianism and Bahaism. While Hinduism saw a slight reduction in the percentage of their followers by the year 1991, most of the other religions increased their strength though by very narrow margin. According to the 1991 census the Hinduism has 82. 41 percent followers to the total population. 11. 67 percent followed Islam and 2. 32 percent followed Christianity. Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism followed by 1. 99, 0. 77 and 0. 41 percent, respectively. And 0. 43 reported to follow other religions. (Census of India 1995, Series 1, Paper 1 on Religion). Then there are sects within each religion. Hinduism, for example, has many sects including Shaiva, Shakta and Vaishnava. Add to them the sects born or religious reform movements such as Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Ram Krishna Mission. More recently, some new cults have come up such as Radhaswami, Saibaba, etc. Similarly, Islam is divided into Shiya and Sunni; Sikhism into Namdhari and Nirankari; Jainism into Digambar and Shvetambar; and Buddhism into Hinayan and Mahayan. While Hindu and Muslim are found in almost all parts of India, the remaining minority religions have their pockets of concentration. Christians have their strongholds in the three southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and in the north-eastern states like Nagaland and Meghalaya. Sikhs are concentrated largely in Punjab, Buddhists in Maharashtra, and Jains are mainly spread over Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat, but also found in most urban centres throughout the country. Check Your Progress 2 i) List, in one line, some of the major forms of diversity found in India? . ii) According to Grierson, how many dialects and languages are spoken in India? .. .. iii) What are the various religions found in India? Use two lines for your answer. . 14 . 1. 3. 4 Caste Diversity India, as you know, is a country of castes. The term caste is generally used in two senses: sometimes in the sense of Varna and sometimes in the sense of Jati. i) Varna refers to a segment of the four-fold division of Hindu society based on functional criterion. The four Varna are Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra with their specialised functions as learning, defence, trade and manual service. The Varna hierarchy is accepted all over India. (ii) Jati refers to a hereditary endogamous status group practising a specific traditional occupation. You may be surprised to know that there are more than 3,000 jati in India. These are hierarchically graded in different ways in different regions. It may also be noted that the practice of caste system is not confined to Hindus alone. We find castes among the Muslim, Christian, Sikh as well as other communities. You may have heard of the hierarchy of Shaikh, Saiyed, Mughal, Pathan among the Muslim. Furthermore, there are castes like teli (oil pressure), dhobi (washerman), darjee (tailor), etc. among the Muslim. Similarly, caste consciousness among the Christian in India is not unknown. Since a vast majority of Christians in India are converted from Hindu fold, the converts have carried the caste system into Christianity. Among the Sikh again you have so many castes including Jat Sikh and Majahabi Sikh (lower castes). In view of this you can well imagine the extent of caste diversity in India. In addition to the above described major forms of diversity, we have diversity of many other sorts like settlement patterns tribal, rural, urban; marriage and kinship patterns along religious and regional lines; cultural patterns reflecting regional variations, and so on. These forms of diversity will become clear to you as you proceed along Blocks 1 to 7 of this course. Activity 1 What language do you speak and to which stock of languages does it belong? Find out what language/s is/are spoken in the ten families living on the left side of your own family. Divide them according to the IndoAryan and Dravidian stock of languages. Write down all this information on a separate sheet. Compare your findings with those of other students at your study centre. Unity and Diversity 1. 4 BONDS OF UNITY IN INDIA In the preceding section we have illustrated the diversity of India. But that is not the whole story. There are bonds of unity underlying all this diversity. These bonds of unity may be located in a certain underlying uniformity of life as well as in certain mechanisms of integration. Census Commissioner in 1911, Herbert Risley (1969), was right when he observed: â€Å"Beneath the manifold diversity of physical and social type, language, custom and religion which strikes the observer in India there can still be discerned . †¦. a certain underlying uniformity of life from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin†. We will describe the bonds of unity of India in this section. These are geo-political unity, the institution of pilgrimage, tradition of accommodation, and tradition of interdependence. We will now describe each of them in that order. 15 Social Structure Rural and Urban . 4. 1 Geo-political Unity The first bond of unity of India is found in its geo-political integration. India is known for its geographical unity marked by the Himalayas in the north end and the oceans on the other sides. Politically India is now a sovereign state. The same constitution and same parliament govern every part of it. We share the same political culture marked by the norms of democracy, secularism and socialism. Although it has not been recognised till recently, the geo-political unity of India was always visualized by our seers and rulers. The expressions of this consciousness of the geo-political unity of India are found in Rig-Veda, in Sanskrit literature, in the edicts of Asoka, in Buddhist monuments and in various other sources. The ideal of geo-political unity of India is also reflected in the concepts of Bharatvarsha (the old indigenous classic name for India), Chakravarti (emperor), and Ekchhatradhipatya (under one rule). 1. 4. 2 The Institution of Pilgrimage Another source of unity of India lies in what is known as temple culture, which is reflected in the network of shrines and sacred places. From Badrinath and Kedarnath in the north to Rameshwaram in the south, Jagannath Puri in the east to Dwaraka in the west the religious shrines and holy rivers are spread throughout the length and breadth of the country. Closely related to them is the age-old culture of pilgrimage, which has always moved people to various parts of the country and fostered in them a sense of geo-cultural unity. As well as being an expression of religious sentiment, pilgrimage is also an expression of love for the motherland, a sort of mode of worship of the country. It has played a significant part in promoting interaction and cultural affinity among the people living in different parts of India. Pilgrimage can, therefore, rightly be viewed as a mechanism of geo-cultural unity. 1. 4. 3 Tradition of Accommodation Have you heard of the syncretic quality of Indian culture, its remarkable quality of accommodation and tolerance? There is ample evidence of it. The first evidence of it lies in the elastic character of Hinduism, the majority religion of India. It is common knowledge that Hinduism is not a homogeneous religion, a religion having one God, one Book and one Temple. Indeed, it can be best described as a federation of faiths. Polytheistic (having multiple deities) in character, it goes to the extent of accommodating village level deities and tribal faiths. For the same reason, sociologists have distinguished two broad forms of Hinduism: sanskritic and popular. Sanskritic is that which is found in the texts (religious books like Vedas, etc. ) and popular is that which is found in the actual life situation of the vast masses. Robert Redfield has called these two forms as great tradition of Ramayana and Mahabharata and the little tradition of worship of the village deity. And everything passes for Hinduism. What it shows is that Hinduism has been an open religion, a receptive and absorbing religion, an encompassing religion. It is known for its quality of openness and accommodation. 16 Another evidence of it lies in its apathy to conversion. Hinduism is not a proselytising religion. That is, it does not seek converts. Nor has it ordinarily resisted other religions to seek converts from within its fold. This quality of accommodation and tolerance has saved the way to the coexistence of several faiths in India. Mechanisms of coexistence of people of different faiths have been in existence here for long. Take for example, the case of Hindu-Muslim amity. Hindus and Muslims have always taken part in each other’s functions, festivities and feasts. How did they do it? They did it by evolving the mechanism of providing for a separate hearth and a set of vessels for each other so as to respect each other’s religious sensibility. This always facilitated mutual visiting and sharing in each other’s joy and grief. They have also done so by showing regards for each other’s saints and holy men. Thus, both Hindus and Muslims have shown reverence to the saints and Pirs of each other. And this holds as well for the coexistence of other religious groups like Sikh, Jain, Christian and so on. Activity 2 Write the answers of the following questions on a separate sheet of paper and discuss them with other students at your study centre. i) Give, at least one example, in each of the following areas, to show the blending of Hindu and Muslim cultures in India. a) b) c) d) ii) architecture literature music religion Unity and Diversity Have you recently attended a wedding in a community other than your own? What has struck you as a markedly different feature, which is, absent during a wedding in your community? 1. 4. 4 Tradition of Interdependence We have had a remarkable tradition of interdependence, which has held us together throughout centuries. One manifestation of it is found in the form of Jajmani system, i. e. , a system of functional interdependence of castes. The term â€Å"jajman† refers generally to the patron or recipient of specialised services. The relations were traditionally between a food producing family and the families that supported them with goods and services. These came to be called the jajmani relations. Jajmani relations were conspicuous in village life, as they entailed ritual matters, social support as well as economic exchange. The whole of a local social order was involved (the people and their values) in such jajmani links. A patron had jajmani relations with members of a high caste (like a Brahmin priest whose services he needed for rituals). He also required the services of specialists from the lower jati to perform those necessary tasks like washing of dirty clothes, cutting of hair, cleaning the rooms and toilets, delivery of the child etc. Those associated in these interdependent relations were expected to be and were broadly supportive of each other with qualities of ready help that generally close kinsmen were expected to show. 17 Social Structure Rural and Urban The jajmani relations usually involved multiple kinds of payment and obligations as well as multiple functions. We shall also discuss the jajmani system in the next unit on Rural Social Structure. Here it will suffice to note that no caste was self-sufficient. If anything, it depended for many things on other castes. In a sense, each caste was a functional group in that it rendered a specified service to other caste groups. Jajmani system is that mechanism which has formalised and regulated this functional interdependence. Furthermore, castes cut across the boundaries of religious communities. We have earlier mentioned that notions of caste are found in all the religious communities in India. In its actual practice, thus, the institution of jajmani provides for inter linkages between people of different religious groups. Thus a Hindu may be dependent for the washing of his clothes on a Muslim washerman. Similarly, a Muslim may be dependent for the stitching of his clothes on a Hindu tailor, and vice-versa. Efforts have been made from time to time by sensitive and sensible leaders of both the communities to synthesise Hindu and Muslim traditions so as to bring the two major communities closer to each other. Akbar, for example, founded a new religion, Din-e-Ilahi, combining best of both the religions. The contributions made by Kabir, Eknath, Guru Nanak, and more recently Mahatma Gandhi, are well known in this regard. Similarly, in the field of art and architecture we find such a happy blending of Hindu and Muslim styles. What else is this if not a proof of mutual appreciation for each other’s culture? Quite in line with these traditional bonds of unity, the Indian state in postIndependence era has rightly opted for a composite culture model of national unity rather than a uniform culture model. The composite culture model provides for the preservation and growth of plurality of cultures within the framework of an integrated nation. Hence the significance of our choice of the norm of secularism, implying equal regard for all religions, as our policy of national integration. The above account of the unity of India should not be taken to mean that we have always had a smooth sailing in matters of national unity, with no incidents of caste, communal or linguistic riots. Nor should it be taken to mean that the divisive and secessionist tendencies have been altogether absent. There have been occasional riots, at times serious riots. For example, who can forget the communal riots of partition days, the linguistic riots in Tamil Nadu in protest against the imposition of Hindi, the riots in Gujarat during 1980s between scheduled and non-scheduled castes and communal riots of 2002? The redeeming feature, however, is that the bonds of unity have always emerged stronger than the forces of disintegration. Check Your Progress 3 i) List the bonds of unity in India, in the space given below. . . 18 . i) Indicate the mechanism of the following set of terms, in the space provided against each. a) b) c) d) geo-political unity .. geo-cultural unity .. religious accommodation .. social interdependence .. Unity and Diversity iii) Distinguish between great tradition and little tradition, in the space given below. . . iv) Distinguish between composite culture and uniform culture models of national integration, in the space provided below. . . 1. 5 LET US SUM UP In this unit you have studied that diversity refers to i) patterned differences between groups, ii) socio-cultural variety, and iii) lack of uniformity. Unity means integration that may or may not be based on uniformity, a sense of oneness arising from the bonds that hold the members together or that bind the divers e groups with one another. You have also studied that there are major forms of diversity in India: race, language, religion and caste. Underlying all the diversities there is a remarkable measure of unity. We have noted four bonds of unity in India: geo-political, geo-cultural, religious accommodation and functional interdependence. Closely related to these bonds are four mechanisms of integration: constitution, pilgrimage, provision of a separate hearth, cook and kitchenware for members of other religious community, and jajmani. Finally, we have noted that India has opted for a composite culture model of unity rather than uniform cultural model. . 6 KEYWORDS Brachycephalic In terms of anthropometric measures, heads with a breadth of 80 cephalic index and over are categorised as broad or brachycephalic. Those with an index under 80, but not under 75, are classified 19 Social Structure Rural and Urban as medium heads or meso-or mesati-cephalic. Long or dolicho-cephalic heads are those heads, which have the ceph alic index of below 75. Caucasian Cephalic Index Relating to the white race of mankind as classified according to physical features. The proportion of the breadth of the head to its length is expressed as a percentage and it is called the cephalic index. The condition of unity or of one-ness in a society may be based on the elements of uniformity or similarities. Such condition is described by Durkheim as mechanical solidarity. Relating to a physical type of the Caucasian race characterised by medium or short stature, slender build, long head with cephalic index of less than 75 and dark complexion. A major racial stock native to Asia including peoples of northern and eastern Asia. For example, Malaysians, Chinese, Japanese, Eskimos, and often American Indians also belong to this race. In India, besides several others the Naga tribes in north east belong to this race. A people belonging to the African branch of the black race. In India, the south Indian tribes like Kadar, the Irula, etc. are said to belong to this race. Relating to the germanic peoples of northern Europe and specially of Scandinavia. This is a physical type characterised by tall stature, long head, light skin and hair, and blue eyes. In India, they are found in different parts of north of the country such as Punjab and Rajputana. The condition of unity or one-ness in a society may arise out of differences of socio-cultural characteristics. Such unity as described by Durkheim as organic solidarity. Relating to the worship of more than one god. Converting from one religion to another. Relating to an ethnic group including the Australian aborigines and other peoples of southern Asia and Pacific islands, including the Ainu of Japan the Vedda of Sri Lanka. In India, the Chotanagpur tribes of Bihar called Ho and Bhil are considered to be of this race. Mechanical Solidarity Mediterranean Mongoloid Negrito Nordic Organic Solidarity Polytheistic Proselytising Proto-Australoid 20 Western Brachycephals They have been divided into three types: i) the Alpenoid is characterised by broad head with rounded occiput (the back part of the head or skull) prominent nose, medium stature, round face. Skin colour is light; hair on face and body is abundant, body is thickly set. This type is found among the Bania of Gujarat, the Kathi of Kathiawar, the Kayastha of Bengal etc. Amongst the Dinaric people, the head is broad with rounded occiput and high vault; nose is very long, stature is tall, face is long, forehead is receding; skin colour is darker, eyes and hair are also dark. This type is represented in Bengal, Orissa and Coorg. The Brahmin of Bengal and the Kanarese Brahmin of Mysore are also some of the representatives. Unity and Diversity ii) iii) The Armenoid is in most of the characters like the Dinaric. In the former, the shape of occiput is more marked and the nose is more prominent and narrow. The Parsi of Bombay show typical Armenoid characteristics. 1. 7 FURTHER READING Betteille, A. 2000. The Chronicles of Our Time. Penguin Books India: New Delhi Deshpandae, Satish 2003. Contemporary India: A Sociological View. Viking: New Delhi Mukerjee, Radha Kumud 1954. The Fundamental Unity of India. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan: Bombay, pp. 17-22 Risley, H. H. 1969, The People of India (first print in 1915). Orient Books: Delhi